Why castrate your alpaca?
Castrating your alpaca helps prevent the obvious unwanted breeding (especially between related animals). It also reduces aggression towards people, alpacas and other animals alike. Entire male alpacas can be aggressive towards other herd members including newborn crias. As a result, even though they may be meant to be guardian animals, they're capable of damaging a group of cycling ewes in a short amount of time.

In fact, when selecting a guardian alpaca, it's best to choose wethers (castrated alpacas) as entire males have been known to attack ewes, sometimes causing fatalities. This is why we recommend to only run castrated (wethered) males with ewes.

What is the best-practise castration procedure?
Castration can be done from 6 months onwards, but it is preferable to wait until 18 months of age, when skeletal maturity occurs, and growth plates are closed. However, in some circumstances behaviour management can be a problem and an animal may require castration before 18 months. In such cases, as long as both testicles are present in the scrotum, castration can be done.

Alpaca anatomy is not the same as a sheep or cattle, which means that placing a ring on a young alpaca is not an appropriate way to castrate them. Castration mush be done surgically under a general anaesthesia by a registered veterinarian. It is usually done in the field but may also be done at the clinic as well. Once castrated, animals usually walk away with their paddock mates a few minutes after the procedure.

Post operative complications can include:

• discomfort
• bleeding
• swelling
• infection

If you wish to arrange for castration of a male alpaca, please don't hesitate to contact the clinic.

If weaning is one of the biggest stressors in the production cycle of a beef calf, castration could be considered a close second. However, to minimise the negative effects of castration, this procedure should be done as early as possible, and definitely prior to weaning. In extensive cattle farming areas, the cost and logistics of mustering frequently make early castration impossible, however in the southern beef industry, farmers should endeavour to achieve early castration as a routine.

Early castration
According to the Australian Animal Welfare guidelines, calves less than two weeks old should be castrated by the ‘rubber ring’ method in preference to the ‘cutting’ method. Calves over two weeks old should be castrated by the cutting method in preference to the rubber ring and ‘tension band’ methods.

Pain relief
The Australian Animal Welfare guidelines stipulate calves must be castrated or dehorned prior to six months of age unless pain relief is provided. The best practice is to perform castration and dehorning as young as possible and to administer pain relief regardless of age.

Pain relief options include:

• Trisolfen - A local anaesthetic and antiseptic gel.
• Meloxicam injection - A single dose via subcutaneous injection is effective for three days.
• Buccalgesic OTM - An oral form of meloxicam that is effective for both pain relief and reducing fever caused by infection. Buccalgesic OTM has recently been approved for tail-docking and castration.

For more information about pain-relief options or to discuss early castration strategy, speak to a member of our friendly veterinary staff.

Botulism is a life-threatening condition that affects an animal's nervous system. It’s caused by a toxin which is produced by the bacteria that grow in decaying organic matter. In fact, just one dead mouse could harbour enough toxin to contaminate and kill a substantial number of animals.

Factors that increase the risk of botulism occurring in your herd include:

• Contamination from dead animals or birds in hay or silage
• Contamination from rotting hay or spoiled silage
• Mixer wagons (animals would usually not eat the dead item but they may if it’s mixed into their regular food)
• Some nutritional deficiencies cause a depraved appetite (for example, a phosphorus and protein deficiency will cause "bone chewing")
• Lack of immunity to botulism

Fortunately, vaccinations to improve your herd’s immunity to botulism are very affordable and a number of choices exist on the market, each with different features. Similarly, nutritional deficiencies are best managed at the source, with licks and suplementary feeds available. 

While the risk of a widespread botulism outbreak occurring in a herd is relatively low, the consequences are so serious it is worth vaccinating if any of the risk factors mentioned are present on your farm.

If you’re concerned about the risk of botulism in your herd, please discuss the steps necessary to mitigate the risk with a member of our friendly veterinary team.

Horses can be wonderfully athletic companions, or much loved pet ponies, or anything in between. Accordingly, the muscle mass and body condition of different horses and ponies will vary according to their purpose and level of work. 

As a general rule, all horses should be symmetrical in their muscle mass side to side. There should not be any sudden changes in muscle mass, or sudden 'bulging' of the muscles. 

One condition that can be seen in some horses, especially after sudden periods of unexpected work, is a condition called Rhabdomyolysis. Some breeds are more or less likely to experience this and other related conditions. The over exertion or sudden tear of a muscle can release powerful muscle enzymes that make the muscles very very sore, very very tense, and you might see your horse looking very very lame all of a sudden. Fortunately, despite the dramatic presentation, most horses can make a full recovery with treatment and exercise modifications. 

See below- the bay horse on the left has a one sided severe muscle tone issue, where as the chestnut horse on the right has normal musculature. The bay horse went on to make a full recovery. 

Although autumn joining in most herds is still a few months off, preparation is key if you are considering synchrony to manage your breeding. So if you are thinking about syncing, here are our seven top tips:

1. Synchrony is a tool, not a solution
   Synchrony helps you better manage your cows’ breeding, but it doesn’t make infertile cows fertile, and it won’t compensate for poorly conditioned or underfed cows.
   
   
2. Factor in your facilities
   Large groups require a good setup, thorough planning and skilled helpers - all of which require careful planning. Remember, synchronising oestrus should help manage your workload, not create a headache. So ask us how we can help match a program to suit your needs.
   
   
3. Know your budget
   If planning artificial insemination, you’ll need to plan for additional drug costs, semen costs and labour costs. Weigh these up against the benefits of tight calving patterns, better genetics from AI and reduced bull costs to see if synchrony is for you.
   
   
4. Feed your cows well
   Cattle are always more fertile when fed on a rising plane of nutrition.
   
   
5. Get heifers to their target mating weights
   Forget about age; determining puberty is all about weight measurement. If your heifers are just reaching puberty at joining, they will struggle to get in calf. Aim for 65% of their mature weight at joining, with a minimum of 55%.
   
   
6. Remember the other end – managing calving
   Estimates show that a maximum of 30% of cows that conceive on day one will calve on their due date. The spread we see is around 10 days of their due date (283 days after AI).
   
   
7. Manage animal health & diseases
   Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) is a major cause of reproductive loss in Australia. You will need to have a plan in place to manage it. Breeding cows should also be vaccinated against leptospirosis.

For more advice on using synchrony to manage breeding with your herd, contact our friendly veterinary team.

Ovine Johnes Disease (OJD) is a bacterial wasting disease that affects sheep. OJD infections cause the lining of the bowel to thicken which reduces the absorption of nutrients from food. Affected sheep show severe wasting and often, chronic scouring.

Recent press on the distribution of OJD
OJD is now considered endemic across NSW after it was detected in the Northern Tablelands. Traditionally considered a disease found in the southern parts of Australia, infected flocks are no longer quarantined and there are few restrictions on the movement of stock since the end of the National OJD Management Plan in 2018. In an ABC News article, the LLS recommended that all sheep in NSW should be vaccinated even if the flock and farm haven’t tested positive.

How do sheep become infected with OJD?
Sheep can become infected with OJD at any age, however young sheep are particularly susceptible. Infected sheep shed bacteria in their manure, contaminating their environment (OJD bacteria can survive 12 months or more in favourable environments) before showing signs of OJD. Other sheep may become infected when they consume contaminated food or water.

Management
Unfortunately, there is no effective treatment for OJD. There are vaccines such as Gudair, a single-dose vaccine which should be given to lambs between four-to-16 weeks of age. Sheep owners may consider the benefits of vaccination to:

• Help control OJD if the flock is infected
• Help prevent the introduction of OJD into an unaffected flock
• Provide extra assurance to purchasers of sheep, including rams, that they are at lower risk of being infected
• Managing OH&S risks in regards to Gudair vaccination to keep staff safety paramount

Did you know that in some cases, diarrhea in foals can prove fatal? Changes in the appearance of a foal’s faeces can be just uncomplicated diarrhea requiring no treatment other than increased fluid intake. However, it can also indicate a life-threatening gut infection which can produce toxins and clinical signs associated with systemic infection.

Let’s look at some potential causes of diarrhea in foals:

Mild diarrhea
Often seen when foals are between five and 15 days old, it’s thought that the condition is due to a foal’s gut maturation, as milk consumption increases and gut bacterial population establishes itself. Foals typically show no other symptoms and will continue to drink from their dam and exhibit normal behaviour.

Sometimes, this condition is termed "foal heat scours" as it typically occurs around the same time that a dam comes back into heat after birth. No treatment is required, however cleaning the perineum and topical application of vaseline or a zinc oxide preparation can help prevent scalding.

Ingesting foreign materials
The incidental eating of dirt, wood shavings or other high-fibre things in the foal’s environment. These foreign materials can cause some irritation to the gut, resulting in diarrhea. Colic and swollen gut are often seen with this type of diarrhea. Diagnosis can be made by observation, history and possibly radiology is required.

Viruses
Rotavirus can cause diarrhoea in foals in the first few days of life as well as in older foals, around weaning age. Rotavirus is highly contagious and can cause outbreaks on farms when strict isolation of affected animals is not quickly implemented.

The virus damages the tops of the villi in the small intestine, causing poor digestion and absorption of nutrients and diarrhoea. These in turn cause abnormal fermentation and adsorption of fluid into the large intestine as undigested lactose reaches the immature colon. In older foals, the systemic effects are greater, often causing a syndrome where serious ulcers develop at the junction of the stomach and small intestine. Signs of rotavirus infection can include a fever before the onset of diarrhea, poor nursing, dehydration, and temporary lactose intolerance. Some foals may develop chronic lactose intolerance and malabsorption following the episode of diarrhoea.

Coronavirus and adenovirus are much less common causes of infectious diarrhoea in foals and the latter is generally identified in immunocompromised foals.

Treatment for rotavirus is principally supportive and aims to treat lactose intolerance and control secondary bacterial infections. If there is a herd outbreak with multiple foals affected, following through with diagnostics as to what the cause is likely to be is likely to be a positive decision- assisting with foal welfare as well as guiding you to make clear decisions to reduce the risks for your foals. 

Bacterial causes
Colostridal and salmonella bacteria are the two most common types of bacterial diarrhoea in foals.

The clostridial variety is characterised by a watery, sometimes bloody diarrhoea, which may be accompanied by fever, lack of appetite, dull appearance, swollen gut and colic. Some strains of clostridial diarrhoea have a high fatality rate.

Treatment for clostridial diarrhoea includes antibiotics to correct dehydration, stabilise electrolytes, and maintain hydration and a positive energy balance. Antitoxins for certain clostridial bacteria can be administered orally in cases where strains are identified. Administration of hyperimmune plasma either orally or intravenously can assist foals to recover faster.
Salmonella is perhaps the most serious of bacterial diarrhoea. Foals are commonly infected as isolated cases, but salmonella is highly contagious and commonly causes outbreaks in adult horses and foals. In foals infected with salmonella, the bacteria often spread outside the intestine and infect organs such as the lungs, abdomen, brain, eyes, joints and bones. Symptoms of systemic bacterial infection may precede the onset of diarrhoea. The diarrhoea is typically copious and smelly, sometimes bloody.

Treatment for salmonella is supportive and consists of fluids, plasma, anti-endotoxin treatment, and antibiotics based on sensitivity results.

Prevention

• Rotavirus - Immunisation of pregnant mares, isolation of new horses, and disinfection of barns and equipment with phenolic compounds may help prevent rotavirus outbreaks.
• Clostridial diarrhoea - Vaccination of pregnant mares with some newly developed vaccines may help prevent the disease. Good hygiene measures around foaling are important to prevent contamination of newborn foals.
• Salmonella diarrhoea - Administration of salmonella hyperimmune plasma to newborns and vaccination of pregnant mares during pregnancy may help prevent this disease. Strict isolation measures should be taken to prevent the contamination of other horses or people.